Taba

Taba has been a caravan route since the 14th century, serving as a meeting of borders between Jordan, Israel and the whole of Egypt as well as overlooking Saudi Arabia.  With its warm weather, idyllic beaches and convenient location, Taba is a great place for leisure and adventure seekers alike.

Taba has been a much disputed area of Sinai between Egypt in Israel.  It has changed hands several times but has ended up back in Egypt's possession.  The first occupation by Israel was between 1956-1957.  Israel occupied Taba again 10 years later, in 1967 and finally argued for possession during peace negociations after the Yom-Kippur War, however the commission charged with solving the dispute sided in Egypt's favor.

Taba is located at the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba, part of the Red Sea, and is accessible by road from any major city in Egypt including Cairo and Sharm El-Sheihk, as well as from Eilat in Israel.  There is a ferry service from Aqaba, Jordan, which is currently closed due to safety concerns, and commercial, as well as charter flights, from various international airports.

If coming from Eilat, you will be issued a 14 day tourist visa that is valid only for the Sinai region.  The border crossing, open 24 hours, is an easy walk, if coming on foot.  There are always local Bedouins waiting to take tourist in mini vans to various destinations, but they tend to be overpriced.  Many of the  hotels have shuttles to escort you to Taba.

Many people visiting Taba, come to experience the serene beaches and fantastic hotels that Taba has to offer.  All inclusive resorts, which generally include restaurants, shops and even casinos, are a specialty but low budget options are also available for those searching for a deal.  Adventure sports such as diving, snorkeling, hiking, quad, and of course camel rides are all possible and arranged by most hotels in the area.

Other tourist attractions in the area include the Colored Canyon, St. Catherine's, Saladin Fortress and Taba Heights.  These are all short day trips fromTaba that are popular and easily reached

Alexandria

Alexandria, the coastal gem of Egypt, is located on the Mediterranean coast, about 220 kilometers from Cairo, and is second only to the capital in size.  This beautiful city is rich in history, as it has been a major seaport since ancient times, with the ancient Egyptians trading with Greeks and Romans from this very convenient point.  Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great, was the capital of Egypt for nearly one thousand years, and saw the rule of the Ptolemies, including the most famous Ptolemy of all, Cleopatra.  Some of the most famous structures have also been located in Alexandria, such as the Pharos lighthouse, which fell to ruins after an earthquake in the 14th century destroyed it, as well as the ancient Library of Alexandria, the largest ancient library in the world, which was also destroyed by several fires, and the catacombs of Kom El-Shuqaffa.  Alexandria's many sites detail its significance throughout history, and is definitely a must-see on any trip to Egypt

The Pyramid Field of Dahshur by Jimmy Dunn

Currently Dashur is one of the best places to see large pyramids, because it has few visitors, yet is not a far drive from Cairo.

The Red Pyramid

Located in South Saqqara stand the pyramids of Dhashur (Dahshur). The Red Pyramid and the Bent Pyramid are about 2 km south of the Mastaba Faraoun. The constructor of these pyramids is thought to have been Snofru (2575 - 2551 BC), who was the first ruler of the 4th Dynasty. Snofru built these two pyramids and is thought to have built the pyramid at Maidoun. His son was Cheops who continued his constructive tendencies.

The Red Pyramid is thought to be older and is the only one that can be entered at this time.. The Bent Pyramid was built out of limestone which was quarried locally. The casing was of polished Turah limestone. This pyramid is also known as the Southern Shining Pyramid. The casing blocks are very stable and very difficult to remove because they slope inwards. The base of the pyramid is 188.6m and is 105m high. Because of the bend in construction, the original angle would have made it 128.5m high.

The Bent Pyramid

The Bent Pyramid is unique for two reasons. The first is the angle change. There are two theories for this change. The first is that the builders may have gotten tired and wanted to reduce the volume and to finish faster. Another is that when the pyramid at Maidoun collapsed, the architect lost his nerve and changed the angle. The angle at Maidoun was 52 degrees as is the base of the Bent Pyramid. At the bend, the angle is changed to 43.5 degrees up to the peak.

The second reason is that it has two entrances. The first is in the middle of the northern side and is about 12m above the ground. It leads to the upper chamber. The second entrance is on the western side and is just above the ground. It leads to the lower chamber. The floors of both chambers were built 4m deep with small stone blocks.

The Pyramid of Amenemhet III

About a mile from the Bent Pyramid, but not approachable is the Pyramid of Amenemhet III.  Originally, it was 341 feet square by 266 feet high, but as a mudbrick  pyramid lined with limestone, it has deteriorated badly.

Deir el-Bahri By Marie Parsons

Hatshepsut is one of the more mysterious figures of ancient Egyptian history. Much is known of her reign as King, yet so many questions remain unanswered. Questions such as why late in the reign of her successor Tuthmosis III, 40 years after her death, did he suddenly seem to embark on a campaign to erase her name and memory from the lists of Kings.

In any case, Hatshepsut has left a legacy of architectural and statuary elegance. Her temple built in the area of Thebes, at modern Deir el-Bahri, stands as a beautiful monument to her reign.

Lying directly across the Nile from the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak, the rock amphitheater of Deir el-Bahri provides a natural focal point of the west bank terrain and an inviting site for the temples of many rulers. The natural rock amphitheater, a deep bay in the cliffs, was an important religious and funerary site in the Theban area. The remains of the temples of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II, Hatshepsut, and Tuthmosis III, as well as private tombs dating to those reigns and through to the Ptolemaic period can be found here. The most important private tombs at Deir el-Bahri are those of Meketra, which contain many painted wooden funerary models from the Middle Kingdom, and even the first recorded human-headed canopic jar, and the tomb of Senenmut, Hatshepsut’s adviser and tutor to her daughter..

An 11th Dynasty shaft tomb at the southern end contained a cache of forty royal mummies from the Valley of the Kings. The bodies had been re-interred there by 21st Dynasty priests, probably to safeguard against further attempts at robbery. The cache included the mummies of King Seqenenre Taa II, Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Tuthmosis I, II and III, Seti I and Ramesses II, III, and IX, Pinudgjem I and II and Siamun. Later on, a cache of 153 reburied mummies of the priests themselves were also found in a tomb here.

The first monarch to build here was the Middle Kingdom ruler Nebhepetre Mentuhotep, whose temple became a template for similar later structures such as the much larger mortuary temple of Hatshepsut.

Temple of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep

Nebhepetre Mentuhotep was the first ruler of the 11th Dynasty in the Middle Kingdom, and is often listed as I or II on modern dynastic king-lists. The Theban kings of the family Inyotef came to power as Egypt was once again unified after the First Intermediate Period. The Inyotef Kings have left almost no remains of temples associated with their cults. Nebhepetre continued his predecessors’ practice of combining cult structures with tomb.

The temple is called Akh Sut Nebhepetra, "Splendid are the places of Nehepetre". It was the first to be built in the great bay of Deir el-Bahri, just south of the tombs of his ancestors. The temple was discovered in the 1860’s and was excavated after the turn of the century. It continued to be studied later on.

The temple is smaller and not so well-preserved as is the later temple built by Hatshepsut. Unlike the later mortuary temples it also functioned as a tomb, and differed from them in its multi-level construction and plan. A processional causeway led up from a small valley temple to a great tree-lined court beneath which a deep shaft was cut. This shaft led to unfinished rooms believed to have originally been intended as the king’s tomb. Howard Carter found a wrapped statue of the king there.

The front part of the temple was made of limestone and was dedicated to Montu-Ra, local deity of Thebes before Amun. The rear of the temple was made of sandstone and was the cult center for the king.

The sides of the ramp leading to the upper terrace were colonnaded, and the upper terrace itself was given a colonnade on three sides. Octagonal columns surround a large squire structure, a funerary chapel. The enclosure also contained six chapels and shaft tombs for his wives and family members.

The inner part of the temple consists of a columned courtyard, beneath which was the entrance to the king’s tomb cut into the rock. At the level of the terrace, the hypostyle hall contained the sanctuary of the royal cult. A statue of the king stood in the niche carved into the rock face.

Temple of Tuthmosis III

Tuthmosis III, the successor to Hatshepsut, built a temple complex here. It was only discovered in 1961, when restoration and cleaning work between the monuments of Mentuhotep and Hatshepsut was underway. The complex, perched on the rising rock of the cliffs, was built to Amun, as was a chapel to Hathor. The structure was probably intended to receive the barque of Amun during the Feast of the Valley, and thus would have replaced the temple of Hatshepsut.

After a landslide seriously damaged the temple at the end of the 20th Dynasty, it was apparently abandoned. It then became a quarry, and later, a cemetery for the nearby Coptic monastery.

Temple of Hatshepsut

The temple of Hatshepsut is the best-preserved of the three complexes. Called by the people Djeser-djeseru, "sacred of sacreds", Hatshepsut’s terraced and rock-cut temple is one of the most impressive monuments of the west bank.

Situated directly against the rock face of Deir el-Bahri’s great rock bay, the temple not only echoed the lines of the surrounding cliffs in its design, but it seems a natural extension of the rock faces.

The temple was little more than a ruin when first excavated in 1891, but it has led to a great deal of successful reconstruction. The temple took 15 years to build and was modified throughout that time. The approach to the temple was along a 121-foot wide, causeway, sphinx-lined, that led from the valley to the pylons. These pylons have now disappeared

It consisted of three broad courts separated by colonnades, probably imitating the earlier funerary complex of Mentuhotep to its south. These terraces were linked by ascending ramps, and bounded by dressed limestone walls. Hatshepsut recorded that she built the temple as "a garden for my father Amun," and the first court once held exotic trees and shrubs brought from Punt.

Its portico was decorated on its northern side with scenes of the marshes of Lower Egypt, and on the south side, with scenes depicting the quarrying and transportation of the great obelisks in Upper Egypt. The portico on the second court was carved on its southern side with relief scenes of the exploits of her soldiers on the famous trading mission to Punt, and on the north side of this portico are depicted the birth scenes showing Hatshepsut’s divine conception as daughter of Amun himself.

The site of Deir el-Bahri was traditionally connected with the goddess Hathor, chief deity of the Theban necropolis, and long sacred to the goddess. At the southern end of the second colonnade is a complete Hathor chapel, originally with its own entrance. The chapel contains a vestibule with the characteristic Hathor-headed pillars, a 12-columned hypostyle hall and inner rooms also decorated with various scenes of Hatshepsut and Hathor. At the northern end of the same colonnade is a somewhat smaller chapel of Anubis, again with a 12-columned hall and inner rooms.

The upper terrace had an entrance portico decorated with Osiride statues of the female king, that is, statues of Hatshepsut sculpted to appear as the god Osiris, before each pillar, though most of these statues have been destroyed. The portico opened to a columned court flanked on the left with a chapel dedicated to the royal cult, and on the right by a chapel of the solar cult, with open court and altar.

Eighteen cult niches, nine on each side, flank the rock sanctuary of Amun, which was the focus of the entire complex. During the Amarna period, many of the images of Amun were destroyed

During the Ptolemaic time the sanctuary was expanded to include the cults of architects Amenhotep son of Hapu, who oversaw works for Amenhotep III, and Imhotep, who designed the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. In the 7th century ACE, the temple area became the site of a Coptic monastery, from which the Arabic name Deir el-Bahri is derived.


Sources:

• Thebes in Egypt by Nigel and Helen Strudwick
• Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt by Richard Wilkinson
• Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt by John Baines and Jaromir Malek

Marie Parsons is an ardent student of Egyptian archaeology, ancient history and its religion. To learn about the earliest civilization is to learn about ourselves. Marie welcomes

Marsa Matruh

v

Custom Search

Marsa Matruh lies 290 km. West of Alexandria and 222 km. from Sallum. The distance from Cairo to Matrouh is 524 km. It lies on a bay on the Mediterranean and is distinguished by its seven km. long beach, which-as all visitors have testified-is one of the most beautiful in the world. The beach is famous for its white soft sands and calm transparent waters, for the bay is protected from the high seas by a series of rocks forming a natural wave-breaker, with a small opening to allow light vessels in. This beach dates back to the days of Alexander, the Macedonian, when it was known as "Paraetonium" and also as "Amunia". It said that Alexander the Great stopped there during his historical expedition to pay tribute, and sacrifice, to the god Amun, at Siwa, so that he becomes Amun's son and his rule be a historical continuation of the pharaohs. There are ruins of a temple from the time of Rameses II (1200 B.C.) in Matrouh. Monument and Tourist Sites Egyptian Fleet Anchorage Built the Ptolemies, the remains of the naval installations still stand west of the port. Coptic Chapel Built the early Coptic age, and contains several caves bearing inscriptions. Rommel's Hideout A cave, hewn in the rock, where Rommel drew up plans of his military operations. It has now been turned into a military museum. Beaches Ageebah Beach About 28 km. west of Marsa Matrouh, it is distinguished by its numerous natural caves and enchanting scenery.

The British Cemetery The German Cemetery: It is a fortress like memorial that was built on a high overlooking the sea. The Italian Cemetery: It is a high tower fort standing on a high hill. The walls of the building are covered with marble.

The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church Of Egypt

The word Copt is derived from the Greek word Aigyptos, which was, in turn, derived from "Hikaptah", one of the names for Memphis, the first capital of Ancient Egypt. The modern use of the term "Coptic" describes Egyptian Christians, as well as the last stage of the ancient Egyptian language script. Also, it describes the distinctive art and architecture that developed as an early expression of the new faith.
The Coptic Church is based on the teachings of Saint Mark who brought Christianity to Egypt during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero in the first century, a dozen of years after the Lord's ascension. He was one of the four evangelists and the one who wrote the oldest canonical gospel. Christianity spread throughout Egypt within half a century of Saint Mark's arrival in Alexandria as is clear from the New Testament writings found in Bahnasa, in Middle Egypt, which date around the year 200 A.D., and a fragment of the Gospel of Saint John, written using the Coptic language, which was found in Upper Egypt and can be dated to the first half of the second century. The Coptic Church, which is now more than nineteen centuries old, was the subject of many prophecies in the Old Testament. Isaiah the prophet, in Chapter 19, Verse 19 says "In that day there will be an altar to the LORD in the midst of the land of Egypt, and a pillar to the LORD at its border."
Although fully integrated into the body of the modern Egyptian nation, the Copts have survived as a strong religious entity who pride themselves on their contribution to the Christian world. The Coptic church regards itself as a strong defendant of Christian faith. The Nicene Creed, which is recited in all churches throughout the world, has been authored by one of its favorite sons, Saint Athanasius, the Pope of Alexandria for 46 years, from 327 A.D. to 373 A.D. This status is well deserved, after all, Egypt was the refuge that the Holy Family sought in its flight from Judea: "When he arose, he took the young Child and His mother by night and departed for Egypt, and was there until the death of Herod, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the Lord through the prophet, saying, "Out of Egypt I called My Son" [Mathew 2:12-23].
The contributions of the Coptic Church to Christendom are many. From the beginning, it played a central role in Christian theology---and especially to protect it from the Gnostics heresies. The Coptic Church produced thousands of texts, biblical and theological studies which are important resources for archeology. The Holy Bible was translated to the Coptic language in the second century. Hundreds of scribes used to write copies of the Bible and other liturgical and theological books. Now libraries, museums and universities throughout the world possess hundreds and thousands of Coptic manuscripts.
The Catechetical School of Alexandria is the oldest Catechetical School in the world. Soon after its inception around 190 A.D. by the Christian scholar Pantanaeus, the school of Alexandria became the most important institution of religious learning in Christendom. Many prominent bishops from many areas of the world were instructed in that school under scholars such as Athenagoras, Clement, Didymus, and the great Origen, who was considered the father of theology and who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies. Origen wrote over 6,000 commentaries of the Bible in addition to his famous Hexapla. Many scholars such as Saint Jerome visited the school of Alexandria to exchange ideas and to communicate directly with its scholars. The scope of the school of Alexandria was not limited to theological subjects, because science, mathematics and the humanities were also taught there: The question and answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before Braille, wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write. The Theological college of the Catechetical School of Alexandria was re-established in 1893. Today, it has campuses in Alexandria, Cairo, New Jersey, and Los Angeles, where priests-to-be and other qualified men and women are taught among other subjects Christian theology, history, Coptic language and art---including chanting, music, iconography, tapestry etc.
Monasticism was born in Egypt and was instrumental in the formation of the Coptic Church's character of submission and humbleness, thanks to the teachings and writings of the Great Fathers of Egypt's Deserts. Monasticism started in the last years of the third century and flourished in the fourth century. Saint Anthony, the world's first Christian monk was a Copt from Upper Egypt. Saint Pachom, who established the rules of monasticism, was a Copt. And, Saint Paul, the world's first anchorite is also a Copt. Other famous Coptic desert fathers include Saint Makarios, Saint Moses the Black, and Saint Mina the wondrous. The more contemporary desert fathers include the late Pope Cyril VI and his disciple Bishop Mina Abba Mina. By the end of the fourth century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian hills. Many of these monasteries are still flourishing and have new vocations till this day. All Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example: Saint Basil, organiser of the monastic movement in Asia minor visited Egypt around 357 A.D. and his rule is followed by the eastern Churches; Saint Jerome, who translated the Bible into Latin, came to Egypt around 400 A.D. and left details of his experiences in his letters; Saint Benedict founded monasteries in the sixth century on the model of Saint Pachom, but in a stricter form. And countless pilgrims visited the "Desert Fathers" and emulated their spiritual, disciplined lives. There is even evidence that Copts had missionaries to Nothern Europe. One example is Saint Moritz of the Theban Legion who was drafted from Egypt to serve under the Roman flag and ended up teaching Christianity to inhabitants of the Swiss Alps, where a small town and a Monastery that contains his relics as well as some of his books and belongings are named after him. Another saint from the Theban Legion is Saint Victor, known among Copts as "Boktor".
Under the authority of the Eastern Roman Empire of Constantinople (as opposed to the western empire of Rome), the Patriarchs and Popes of Alexandria played leading roles in Christian theology. They were invited everywhere to speak about the Christian faith. Saint Cyril, Pope of Alexandria, was the head of the Ecumenical Council which was held in Ephesus in the year 430 A.D. It was said that the bishops of the Church of Alexandria did nothing but spend all their time in meetings. This leading role, however, did not fare well when politics started to intermingle with Church affairs. It all started when the Emperor Marcianus interfered with matters of faith in the Church. The response of Saint Dioscorus, the Pope of Alexandria who was later exiled, to this interference was clear: "You have nothing to do with the Church." These political motives became even more apparent in Chalcedon in 451, when the Coptic Church was unfairly accused of following the teachings of Eutyches, who believed in monophysitism. This doctrine maintains that the Lord Jesus Christ has only one nature, the divine, not two natures, the human as well as the divine.
The Coptic Church has never believed in monophysitism the way it was portrayed in the Council of Chalcedon! In that Council, monophysitism meant believing in one nature. Copts believe that the Lord is perfect in His divinity, and He is perfect in His humanity, but His divinity and His humanity were united in one nature called "the nature of the incarnate word", which was reiterated by Saint Cyril of Alexandria. Copts, thus, believe in two natures "human" and "divine" that are united in one "without mingling, without confusion, and without alteration" (from the declaration of faith at the end of the Coptic divine liturgy). These two natures "did not separate for a moment or the twinkling of an eye" (also from the declaration of faith at the end of the Coptic divine liturgy).
The Coptic Church was misunderstood in the 5th century at the Council of Chalcedon. Perhaps the Council understood the Church correctly, but they wanted to exile the Church, to isolate it and to abolish the Egyptian, independent Pope, who maintained that Church and State should be separate. Despite all of this, the Coptic Church has remained very strict and steadfast in its faith. Whether it was a conspiracy from the Western Churches to exile the Coptic Church as a punishment for its refusal to be politically influenced, or whether Pope Dioscurus didn't quite go the extra mile to make the point that Copts are not monophysite, the Coptic Church has always felt a mandate to reconcile "semantic" differences between all Christian Churches. This is aptly expressed by the current 117th successor of Saint Mark, Pope Shenouda III: "To the Coptic Church, faith is more important than anything, and others must know that semantics and terminology are of little importance to us." Throughout this century, the Coptic Church has played an important role in the ecumenical movement. The Coptic Church is one of the founders of the World Council of Churches. It has remained a member of that council since 1948 A.D. The Coptic Church is a member of the all African Council of Churches (AACC) and the Middle East Council of Churches (MECC). The Church plays an important role in the Christian movement by conducting dialogues aiming at resolving the theological differences with the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Presbyterian, and Evangelical Churches.
Perhaps the greatest glory of the Coptic Church is its Cross. Copts take pride in the persecution they have sustained as early as May 8, 68 A.D., when their Patron Saint Mark was slain on Easter Monday after being dragged from his feet by Roman soldiers all over Alexandria's streets and alleys. The Copts have been persecuted by almost every ruler of Egypt. Their Clergymen have been tortured and exiled even by their Christian brothers after the schism of Chalcedon in 451 A.D. and until the Arab's conquest of Egypt in 641 A.D. To emphasize their pride in their cross, Copts adopted a calendar, called the Calendar of the Martyrs, which begins its era on August 29, 284 A.D., in commemoration of those who died for their faith during the rule of Diocletian the Roman Emperor. This calendar is still in use all over Egypt by farmers to keep track of the various agricultural seasons and in the Coptic Church Lectionary.
For the four centuries that followed the Arab's conquest of Egypt, the Coptic Church generally flourished and Egypt remained basically Christian. This is due to a large extent to the fortunate position that the Copts enjoyed, for the Prophet of Islam, who had an Egyptian wife (the only one of his wives to bear a child), preached especial kindness towards Copts: "When you conquer Egypt, be kind to the Copts for they are your protégés and kith and kin". Copts, thus, were allowed to freely practice their religion and were to a large degree autonomous, provided they continued to pay a special tax, called "Gezya", that qualifies them as "Ahl Zemma" protégés (protected). Individuals who cannot afford to pay this tax were faced with the choice of either converting to Islam or losing their civil right to be "protected", which in some instances meant being killed. Copts, despite additional sumptuary laws that were imposed on them in 750-868 A.D. and 905-935 A.D. under the Abbasid Dynasties, prospered and their Church enjoyed one of its most peaceful era. Surviving literature from monastic centers, dating back from the 8th to the 11th century, shows no drastic break in the activities of Coptic craftsmen, such as weavers, leather-binders, painters, and wood-workers. Throughout that period, the Coptic language remained the language of the land, and it was not until the second half of the 11th century that the first bi-lingual Coptic-Arabic liturgical manuscripts started to appear. One of the first complete Arabic texts is the 13th century text by Awlaad El-Assal (children of the Honey Maker), in which the laws, cultural norms and traditions of the Copts at this pivotal time, 500 years after the Islamic conquest of Egypt were detailed. The adoption of the Arabic language as the language used in Egyptians' every-day's life was so slow that even in the 15th century al-Makrizi implied that the Coptic Language was still largely in use. Up to this day, the Coptic Language continues to be the liturgical language of the Church.
The Christian face of Egypt started to change by the beginning of the second millennium A.D., when Copts, in addition to the "Gezya" tax, suffered from specific disabilities, some of which were serious and interfered with their freedom of worship. For example, there were restrictions on repairing old Churches and building new ones, on testifying in court, on public behavior, on adoption, on inheritance, on public religious activities, and on dress codes. Slowly but steadily, by the end of the 12th century, the face of Egypt changed from a predominantly Christian to a predominantly Muslim country and the Coptic community occupied an inferior position and lived in some expectation of Muslim hostility, which periodically flared into violence. It is remarkable that the well-being of Copts was more or less related to the well-being of their rulers. In particular, the Copts suffered most in those periods when Arab dynasties were at their low.
The position of the Copts began to improve early in the 19th century under the stability and tolerance of Muhammad Ali's dynasty. The Coptic community ceased to be regarded by the state as an administrative unit and, by 1855 A.D., the main mark of Copts' inferiority, the "Gezya" tax was lifted, and shortly thereafter Copts started to serve in the Egyptian army. The 1919 A.D. revolution in Egypt, the first grassroots display of Egyptian identity in centuries, stands as a witness to the homogeneity of Egypt's modern society with both its Muslim and Coptic sects. Today, this homogeneity is what keeps the Egyptian society united against the religious intolerance of extremist groups, who occasionally subject the Copts to persecution and terror. Modern day martyrs, like Father Marcos Khalil, serve as reminders of the miracle of Coptic survival.
Despite persecution, the Coptic Church as a religious institution has never been controlled or allowed itself to control the governments in Egypt. This long-held position of the Church concerning the separation between State and Religion stems from the words of the Lord Jesus Christ himself, when he asked his followers to submit to their rulers: "Render therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's." [Mathew 22:21]. The Coptic Church has never forcefully resisted authorities or invaders and was never allied with any powers, for the words of the Lord Jesus Christ are clear: "Put your sword in its place, for all who take the sword will perish by the sword." (Mathew 26:52). The miraculous survival of the Coptic Church till this day and age is a living proof of the validity and wisdom of these teachings.
Today [as of the writing of this document in 1992 A.D.], there are over 9 million Copts (out of a population of some 57 million Egyptians) who pray and share communion in daily masses in thousands of Coptic Churches in Egypt. This is in addition to another 1.2 million emigrant Copts who practice their faith in hundreds of churches in the United States, Canada, Australia, Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Holland, Brazil, and many other countries in Africa and Asia. Inside Egypt Copts live in every province and in no one of these provinces are they a majority. Their cultural, historical, and spiritual treasures are spread all over Egypt, even in its most remote oasis, the Kharga Oasis, deep in the western desert. As individuals, Copts have reached prestigious academic and professional stature all over the world. One such individual is Dr. Boutros Boutros Ghali the Sixth United Nations Secretary-General (1992-1997). Another is Dr. Magdy Yacoub one of the world's most famous heart surgeons.
Copts observe seven canonical sacraments: Baptism, Christmation (Confirmation), Eucharist, Confession (Penance), Orders, Matrimony, and Unction of the sick. Baptism is performed few weeks after birth by immersing the whole body of the newborn into especially consecrated water three times. Confirmation is performed immediately after Baptism. Regular confession with a personal priest, called the father of confession, is necessary to receive the Eucharist. It is customary for a whole family to pick the same priest as a father of confession, thus, making of that priest a family counselor. Of all seven sacraments, only Matrimony cannot be performed during a fasting season. Polygamy is illegal, even if recognized by the civil law of the land. Divorce is not allowed except in the case of adultery, annulment due to bigamy, or other extreme circumstances, which must be reviewed by a special council of Bishops. Divorce can be requested by either husband or wife. Civil divorce is not recognized by the Church. The Coptic Orthodox Church does not have and does not mind any civil law of the land as long as it does not interfere with the Church's sacraments. The Church does not have (and actually refuses to canonize) an official position vis-à-vis some controversial issues (e.g. abortion). While the church has clear teachings about such matters (e.g. abortion interferes with God's will), it is the position of the Church that such matters are better resolved on a case-by-case basis by the father of confession, as opposed to having a blanket canon that makes a sin of such practices.
There are three main Liturgies in the Coptic Church: The Liturgy according to Saint Basil, Bishop of Caesarea; The Liturgy according to Saint Gregory of Nazianzus, Bishop of Constantinople; and The Liturgy according to Saint Cyril I, the 24th Pope of the Coptic Church. The bulk of Saint Cyril's Liturgy is from the one that Saint Mark used (in Greek) in the first century. It was memorized by the Bishops and priests of the church till it was translated into the Coptic Language by Saint Cyril. Today, these three Liturgies, with some added sections (e.g. the intercessions), are still in use; the Liturgy of Saint Basil is the one most commonly used in the Coptic Orthodox Church.
The worship of Saints is expressly forbidden by the Church; however, asking for their intercessions (e.g. Marian Praise) is central in any Coptic service. Any Coptic Church is named after a Patron Saint. Among all Saints, the Virgin Saint Mary (Theotokos) occupies a special place in the heart of all Copts. Her repeated daily appearances in a small Church in Elzaytoun district of Cairo for over a month in April of 1968 was witnessed by thousands of Egyptians, both Copts and Muslims and was even broadcast on International TV. Copts celebrate seven major Holy feasts and seven minor Holy feasts. The major feasts commemorate Annunciation, Christmas, Theophany, Palm Sunday, Easter, Ascension, and the Pentecost. Christmas is celebrated on January 7th. The Coptic Church emphasizes the Resurrection of Christ (Easter) as much as His Advent (Christmas), if not more. Easter is usually on the second Sunday after the first full moon in Spring. The Coptic Calendar of Martyrs is full of other feasts usually commemorating the martyrdom of popular Saints (e.g. Saint Mark, Saint Mina, Saint George, Saint Barbara) from Coptic History.
The Copts have seasons of fasting matched by no other Christian community. Out of the 365 days of the year, Copts fast for over 210 days. During fasting, no animal products (meat, poultry, fish, milk, eggs, butter, etc.) are allowed. Moreover, no food or drink whatsoever may be taken between sunrise and sunset. These strict fasting rules -- which have resulted in a very exquisite Coptic cuisine over the centuries -- are usually relaxed by priests on an individual basis to accommodate for illness or weakness. Lent, known as "the Great Fast", is largely observed by all Copts. It starts with a pre-Lent fast of one week, followed by a 40-day fast commemorating Christ's fasting on the mountain, followed by the Holy week, the most sacred week (called Pascha) of the Coptic Calendar, which climaxes with the Crucifix on Good Friday and ends with the joyous Easter. Other fasting seasons of the Coptic Church include, the Advent (Fast of the Nativity), the Fast of the Apostles, the Fast of the Virgin Saint Mary, and the Fast of Nineveh.
The Coptic Orthodox Church's clergy is headed by the Pope of Alexandria and includes Bishops who oversee the priests ordained in their dioceses. Both the Pope and the Bishops must be monks; they are all members of the Coptic Orthodox Holy Synod (Council), which meets regularly to oversee matters of faith and pastoral care of the Church. The Pope of the Coptic Church, although highly regarded by all Copts, does not enjoy any state of supremacy or infallibility. Today, there are over 60 Coptic Bishops governing dioceses inside Egypt as well as dioceses outside Egypt, such as in Jerusalem, Sudan, Western Africa, France, England, and the United States. The direct pastoral responsibility of Coptic congregations in any of these dioceses falls on Priests, who must be married and must attend the Catechetical School before being ordained.
There are two other non-clerical bodies who participate in taking care of Church affairs. The first is a popularly-elected Coptic Lay Council, which appeared on the stage in 1883 A.D. to act as a liaison between the Church and the Government. The second is a joint lay-clerical committee, which appeared on the stage in 1928 A.D. to oversee and monitor the management of the Coptic Church's endowments in accordance with the Egyptian laws.
Daily, in all Coptic Churches all over the world, Copts pray for the reunion of all Christian Churches. They pray for Egypt, its Nile, its crops, its president, its army, its government, and above all its people. They pray for the world's peace and for the well-being of the human race.

Photos Egyptian churches

Eighteenth Dynasty

Details of the fall of Avaris are given in an inscription engraved on the wall of a tomb at El-Kab belonging to a warrior named 'Ahmose, Son of Abana.' Early in life this person replaced his father Baba, who had served under Sekenenre'. His own long military career started under Amosis, when the king sailed north to attack the enemy. Promoted from one ship to another on account of his bravery, he fought on foot in the presence of his sovereign. On several occasions he received as a reward not only his male and female captives, but also the decoration known as the Gold of Valor. The siege of the Hyksos fortress appears to have been no easy matter. This was followed by another siege, lasting no less than three years, at Sharuhen, a place in the south-west of Palestine mentioned in the Book of Joshua. This appears to have been the limit of Amosis's campaign in the Palestinian direction, for he had still to cope with the usurper in Nubia and with a couple of rebels who still remained on Upper Egyptian territory. His doughty henchman from El-Kab accompanied him everywhere, and records a great slaughter in all the battles and further rewards to himself, including some fields in his own city. Similar feats of arms are recounted, though much more briefly, by a younger relative from the same place named 'Ahmose Pennekheb, whose life as an active soldier and courtier extended over as many as five reigns. There is evidence elsewhere that King Amosis treated all his soldiers with great liberality, as indeed was their due. The twenty-five years given to this king by Manetho are clearly not far wide of the mark. His son and successor Amenophis I (Amenhotpe as written in the hieroglyphs) continued his father's policy, but with a difference. Up to this time the aim had been merely to restore Egypt within its legitimate borders, but now sprang up the desire 'to extend the boundaries'; a phase commonly used henceforth, but previously hardly employed except once or twice in Dyn. XII. The preoccupation of Amenophis was mainly with Nubia, in the campaign against which the two warriors from El-Kab again took a distinguished part. The son of Abana claims to have convoyed the king upstream and later, after the capture of the enemy chieftain, brought his royal master back to Egypt in two days. If this was true, the king himself could not have ventured very far afield. But now it was definitely decided to colonize Nubia. In this reign we encounter for the first time the title ultimately to be crystallized in the form 'King's Son of Cush'. Already under Amosis the future viceroy Turi is found as 'commandant of Buhen' (Wady Halfa). Under Amenophis he is described as 'King's Son', an epithet to which was subsequently added 'overseer of southern lands'. Though his real name was 'Ahmose and Turi only a nickname, there is no reason to think that either he or any other holder of the title was really a son of the reigning Pharaoh. About this time there appears as El-Kab, which as we have seen provided very brave soldiers, a mysterious title 'first King's Son of Nekhbe' (i.e. El-Kab), and it is difficult not to believe that this designation had something to do with that of the long succession of Nubian viceroys, the more so since two centuries later Nekhen, which is Hieraconpolis just opposite El-Kab, is named as the northern starting point of their jurisdiction.

Looking back over what the contemporary sources have revealed concerning the humiliating Hyksos occupation we find Manetho's account as retailed by Josephus to contain truth and falsity in almost equal measure. R. Weill was the first to insist on the distortion due to a type of literary fiction which became an established convention of Egyptian historical writing. A period of desolation and anarchy is painted in exaggeratedly lurid colors, usually for the glorification of a monarch to whom the salvation of the country is ascribed. Manetho's narrative represents the last stage of a process of falsification which started within a generation after the triumph of Amosis. Not more than eighty years after the expulsion of the enemy, Queen Hashepsowe was characterizing their usurpation in much the same manner as is read in the story of Sekenenre' and Apophis, and parallels are found later under Tut'ankhamun, Merenptah, and Ramesses IV. It is not to be believed that a mighty host of Asiatic invaders descended upon the Delta like a whirlwind and, occupying Memphis, inflicted upon the natives every kind of cruelty. The rare remains of the Hyksos kings point rather to an earnest endeavor to conciliate the inhabitants and to ape the attributes and the trappings of the weak Pharaohs whom they dislodged. Would they otherwise have adopted the hieroglyphic writing and have furnished themselves with compounded with that of the sun-god Re'? The statement that they levied tribute from Upper as well as Lower Egypt must at least be doubted. As we have seen, the view that the Hyksos rulers occupied the entire country is an illusion definitely disposed of by Kamose's great inscription, which clearly implies that the invaders never advanced beyond Gebelen, and suggests that a little later they were compelled to establish their southern boundary at Khmun. Even before that discovery Save-Soderbergh had concluded from the words of the courtiers on the Carnarvon Tablet that a considerable part of the population had resigned themselves to the Asiatic occupation and had found it possible to treat with the invaders on mutually advantageous terms. The further information afforded by the complete stela strongly supports that view, and even suggests that the damage done by the strong man who arose in Thebes was greater than had ever been inflicted by the Hyksos immigrants. Until further discoveries prove the contrary, we must think of the Theban princes as having always maintained their power in their own territory, even if for a short time they had been compelled to accept the position of unwilling vassals.

The Hyksos episode was not without effecting certain changes in the material civilization of Egypt. The most important of these was the introduction of the horse and of the horse-drawn chariot which played so large a part in the later history of the country. It is not proved that these importations contributed in any marked degree to the success of the Asiatics, but they certainly were of great assistance to the Egyptians themselves in their subsequent campaigns. New types of daggers and swords, weapons of bronze, and the strong compound Asiatic bow must also be counted among the benefits derived from what could otherwise be regarded only as a national disaster. In a self-proclaimed philological, rather than archaeological, work such as this would be out of place to dwell upon the new style of fortification which the enemy brought into the country. As regards to the Tell el-Yahudiya ware often mentioned in this connection, the reader must seek an opinion from those more competent to give it. Lastly, it remains to redeem our promise to make some suggestion with regard to the minor Hyksos personages known only from scarabs and cylinder seals. It seems possible that these were early aggressors who entertained the hope of sovereignty before the dynasty of Khayan and the Apophis kings actually achieved that aim; but another possibility is that the objects in question were all of Palestinian origin and commemorated minor chieftains who assumed Pharaonic titles without any right whatsoever. There are, however, mere guesses. It must be repeated that Manetho's Dyn. XVI seems purely fictitious, and that his Dyn. XVII can be made serviceable only as a class-name for the Theban princes included in it.

The Theban saviors of Egypt were a closely knit family in which the women, whether on account of personal attractions or because they were the recognized transmitters of sovereignty, played an extraordinarily prominent part. The latter alternative is, however, ruled out in the case of Tetisheri, one of the earliest of these queens, since fragments of her mummy-cloth found in the great Der el-Bahri cache, inform us that she was the daughter of commoners. Two statuettes of hers are known, both of which must have come from her Theban tomb. Concerning that tomb and concerning her relationships, illuminating information is given by a stela discovered by Petrie at Abydos. Here King Amosis is described as sitting with his wife 'Ahmose-Nofreteroi and pondering what benefits he could confer on his ancestors:

His sister spoke and answered him: 'Why have these things been recalled? What has come into thy heart?' The King's own person said to her: 'I have recalled the mother of my mother and the mother of my father, king's great wife and king's mother, Tetisheri, deceased. A tomb-chamber and a sepulcher of hers are at this moment upon the soil of the Theban and Abydene nomes, but I have said this to thee because My Majesty has wished to make for her a pyramid and a chapel in the Sacred Land close to the monument of My Majesty'....His Majesty spoke thud, and these things were accomplished at once.

The important point here is that King Amosis asserts his own parents to have been the children of the same mother and father, a classical example of brother and sister marriage. Now those parents are known: the mother of Amosis was 'Ahhotpe, and she was the wife of Sekenenre' Ta'o II. In all probability, therefore, Terisheri was the consort of Ta'o I, whose tomb, like that of Ta'o II, had be inspected in the reign of Ramesses IX and found intact. What subsequently happened to Ta'o II has already been told. About Ta'o I nothing further is known, but it is conjectured that his Prenomen was Senakhtenre'.

'Ahhotpe, Ta'o II's queen, attained to even greater celebrity than her mother. A great stela found at Karnak, after heaping eulogies upon her son Amosis I, its dedicator, goes on to exhort all his subjects to do her reverence. In this curious passage she is praised as having rallied the soldiery of Egypt, and as having put a stop to rebellion. Does this refer to a difficult moment after the death of Kamose, who is conjectured with plausibility to have been the short-lived elder brother of Amosis? Kamose's tomb was the last of the row inspected by the Ramesside officials, but later the mummy was removed in its coffin to a spot just south of the entrance of the Wady leading to the Tombs of the Kings, where it was found by Mariette's workmen in 1857. The coffin was not gilded, but of the feathered rishi type employed for non-royal personages of the period. The badly mummified corpse crumbled to dust immediately after its discovery, but upon it, besides other jewels, was found a magnificent dagger now in Brussels.

Little more than a year later another gang of fellahin, searching near the same place, came upon 'Ahhotpe's own coffin and mummy, bedecked with splendid ornaments which are among the greatest treasures of the Cairo museum. Apart from a few things bearing the name of Kamose, these had been the gift of her son Amosis, whose cartouche they mostly show. She must have been an old woman of eighty or more when she was conferring rewards upon her steward Kares in the tenth year of Amenophis I. Long before this she had been obliged to surrender her position of special favor to Amosis's wife 'Ahmose-Nofreteroi. To judge from the number of inscriptions, contemporary and later, in which that young queen's name appears, she obtained a celebrity almost without parallel in the history of Egypt. Her titles of King's Daughter and King's Sister suggest that she may been the daughter of Kamose, and consequently her husband's niece. In an unspecified year of his reign Amosis conferred upon her, or sold to her, the office of Second Prophet of Amun at Karnak, to be hers and her descendants' to all eternity. On stele from the limestone quarries near Tura she is depicted behind her husband as he opens a new gallery in his twenty-second year; the cattle dragging the sledge with the great block are said to have been captured in his Asiatic campaign. The site of his tomb is unknown, but his coffin and mummy came to light in the Der el-Bahri find. After his death 'Ahmose-Nofreteroi was ever more closely associated with her son Amenophis I, whose tomb was discovered high up on the hills south of the Wady leading to the Tomb of the Kings. Possibly he shared the tomb with her, as he did a funerary temple down in the valley immediately to the south. The coffins of both, together with their mummies, though hers is somewhat doubtful, were among the discoveries of the great cache.

The names 'Ahmose and 'Ahhotpe so common at this period, not only for royalties but also for private persons, raise a problem that cannot be solved with certainty. These names mean 'The Moon is born', and 'The Moon is content' respectively, and presuppose a moon-cult in the locality from where the rulers of Dyn. XVII sprang. At Karnak the third member of the Theban triad was a moon-god named Chons, but the name Tuthmosis (Eg. Dhutmose) borne by several Pharaohs of the next generations shows that the lunar connections of their ancestors were with Thoth rather than with Chons. There is no reason to think that the kings and queens whose names we are discussing had any connection with Khmun-Hermopolis, Thoth's main cult-center, and for the present it can only be conjectured that their original home lay a little to the south of Medinet Habu on the west bank where there still exists a tiny temple of late Ptolemaic date dedicated to Thoth as the moon and known as the Kasr el-'Aguz. In the not far distant village of Der el-Medina, which some centuries later housed the workmen employed upon the royal tombs, the entire dynastic family beginning with the two Ta'os were worshipped as the 'Lords of the West'. Many other princely names besides those already mentioned are found on the tomb-walls of these humble folk, with Menthotpe I of Dyn. XI as an exceptional case outside the 'Ahmose clan. Special prominence was here given to Queen 'Ahmose-Nofreteroi, depicted for some unaccountable reason with a black countenance, but also sometimes with a blue one; if she was a daughter of Kamose she will have had no black blood in her veins. An even more important role in the necropolis came to be played by Amenophis I, to whom several separated chapels were dedicated differentiating him as 'Amenophis of the town, 'Amenophis the darling of Amun', and 'Amenophis of the Forecourt'. To one or other of these much loved deities prayers were addressed in time of trouble, or appeal was made to their oracles when need for litigation arose.

In an inscription in his Theban tomb an astronomer named Amenemhe states that he lived twenty-one years under Amenophis I, and that may be accepted as only a few years short of the length of reign, since it agrees approximately with the figure given by the excerptors of Manetho for an Amenophthis of whom they make the third king of Dyn. XVIII instead of the second. About his tomb and his mummy we have already spoken.

At the death of Amenophis I (c. 1528 BC) the New Kingdom, or the Empire as it is sometimes called, was well set on its course, and there followed more than a century and a half of unbroken prosperity. Thebes was paramount among the cities of Egypt, and Amen-Re', the principal deity at Karnak, at last vindicated his right to the title 'King of the Gods' which he had borne for so long. Some distortion in our perspective is due to the paucity of monuments from Memphis, Heliopolis, and the Delta, since military bases must clearly have been maintained in the north; nonetheless, we can hardly be mistaken in stressing the Theban supremacy. The sculptures and inscriptions in the great temple of Karnak are a mine of information. On the west bank the main necropolis had moved southward, with a line of mortuary temples in honor of the Pharaohs and their patron deity at the edge of the cultivation, and the rock-tombs of the nobles describing a honeycomb pattern above in the hill of Sheikh 'Abd el-Kurna. Usually one wall in the outer chamber of these tombs is reserved to depict the activities of the owner, and sometimes another wall displays a stela giving a verbal account of his merits and exploits. Naturally other sites are not completely barren of material for the historian: the remains of provincial temples, graffiti on the rocks at the Cataracts, records of mining activities at Sinai and elsewhere, though writings on papyrus are of extreme rarity. But when all these scattered remains are bulked together, Thebes still retains its position as the main source of our knowledge.

Tuthmosis I, the new king, was the son of a woman of non-royal blood named Senisonb. Probably his sole title to kingship was as husband of the princess 'Ahmose, a lady evidently of very exalted parentage. Two sons are depicted in the tomb of Paheri, mayor of El-Kab, where that noble's father is shown as their 'male nurse' or 'tutor'. Amenmose, perhaps the elder, is described, on a broken stela of year 4, as hunting in the desert near the Great Sphinx and , if it be true that at that time he was already 'great army-commander of his father', the king's marriage must have taken place long before he ascended the throne. The other son Wadjmose is a mysterious and interesting character, since after his death the unusual honor was paid him of a tiny chapel erected just south of the Ramesseum. A man named Amenhotpe who had the rank of 'First King's Son of 'Akheperkare' (this the Prenomen of Tuthmosis I) was not a real son, because both his parents are named; it is of interest to mention him here, since this instance illustrates the principal difficulty in dealing with Egyptian genealogical problems: one never knows whether terms like 'son', 'daughter', 'brother', 'sister', and so forth are to be understood literally or not.

The first official act of Tuthmosis I was to send a prescript announcing his accession to Turi, who was still viceroy in Nubia; in this he set forth at length the titulary by which he wished to be known, and which was to be used in connection with all offerings he might make to the gods, as well as in oaths to be sworn in his name. One of the two copies which we have is said to have come form Wady Halfa, but Tuthmosis's ambition did not stop at that fortress-town. A great inscription of his second year is engraved on a rock opposite the island of Tombos above the Third Cataract, but is richer in grandiloquent phrases than in solid information. A more sober account to the campaign is given by our friend 'Ahmose of El-Kab, who related how he navigated the king's fleet over the rough Nile water when His Majesty, raging like a panther, transfixed the enemy chief's breast with his first arrow and carried him off to Thebes hung head downwards at the prow of the royal ship. A greater feat of arms was the expedition which penetrated across the Euphrates into Nahrin, the territory of the king of Mitanni, where a commemorative stela was set up. A great slaughter was made and many prisoners taken. The two veterans form El-Kab again took part, each of them receiving a handsome reward in return for the horse and chariot which he had captured. On the journey back the king celebrated his success with an elephant hunt in the swampy region of Niy, near the later Apamea in Syria. Only once again for many centuries, namely under Tuthmosis III, did an Egyptian army ever thrust so far to the north-east, and we shall hardly be mistaken in regarding Tuthmosis I as no less of a military genius than his grandson.

It is not known how long the reign lasted, perhaps as little as ten years, the latest certain date recorded being the fourth year. A great stela recounting his works in the temple of Osiris at Abydos has lost its date, if it ever had one. If the mummy found at Er el-Bahri is really his, he may have been about fifty years old. In his funerary arrangements he followed Amenophis I's innovation of making a spatial separation between mortuary temple and actual tomb, and this was copied by all his successors. The temple has not been actually found, unless it was incorporated in that of his daughter, concerning which we shall have much to tell later. The tomb is the oldest of those in he remote valley of the Biban el-Moluk ('Tombs of the King'), and consists of an entrance stairway leading steeply downwards, an ante-chamber and a sepulchral hall from which a small store-room branched off; a very modest affair compared with the great sepulchers which were to follow. The yellow quartzite sarcophagus found within and now in the Cairo Museum was apparently placed there later by his grandson Tuthmosis III. An important official named Ineni, who had supervised the splendid buildings at Karnak, including the two obelisks of which one still stands erect, was entrusted with the quarrying of the tomb, his own words being

'I saw to the digging out of the hill-sepulcher of His Majesty privily, none seeing and hearing.'

We gather that the intention was so far as possible to place the king's mummy and rich equipment out of the reach of robbers, an abortive aspiration as it turned out. Ineni was rewarded with a gift of many serfs and daily rations of bread from the royal granary. Thereupon, he tells us,

the king went to his rest form life an ascended to heaven after he had completed his years in happiness.

The favors accorded to Ineni were continued and even increased by Tuthmosis II, the son of Tuthmosis I by a lesser queen named Mutnofre. The reign may have been brief, since Ineni declared himself to have been already old and yet was able to describe conditions under Tuthmosis II's successor; but there is no valid reason for doubting the date of year 18 found upon a broken stela copied by Daressy and now mislaid. The principal monument is a triumphal stela dated in year 1 and set up on the road between Aswan and Philae. This tells with unusual wealth of detail how news was brought of an insurrection in Nubia:

One came to inform His Majesty that vile Cush had revolted and that those who were subjects of the Lord of the Two Lands had planned rebellion to plunder the people of Egypt and to steal cattle from those fortresses which King 'Akerperkare' had built in his victories in order to repel the revolted lands and the Nubian tribesman of Khenthennufe; and now a chieftain in the north of vile Cush was falling into a season of disobedience together with two tribesman of Ta-Sti, children of the chieftain of vile Cush who had fled before the Lord of the Two Lands on the day of the Goodly God's slaughtering, this land being divided into five pieces, each man being possessor of his portion.

On hearing this His Majesty raged like a panther, just as his father had done, and swore that he would not leave alive a single man among them. Thereupon his army overthrew those foreigners, sparing only one of the Nubian chieftain's children who was brought back to Thebes as a captive amid general rejoicing. About Tuthmosis II's other doings little else is heard than that the younger 'Ahmose of El-Kab accompanied him to Palestine and took many prisoners: also that he showed favor to a certain Nebamun who was later to become a steward of Queen Nebtu as well as captain of the king's navy.

The aged Ineni announces the death of Tuthmosis II and the accession of his successor in the following words:

Having ascended into heaven, he became united with the gods, and his son, being arisen in his place as king of the Two Lands, ruled upon the throne of his begetter, while his sister, the god's wife Hashepsoew governed the land and the Two Lands were under her control; people worked for her, and Egypt bowed the head.

Despite the terse way in which the fact is recorded, there is no reason to think that Tuthmosis II died other than a normal death. An almost underdecorated tomb at Biban el-Moluk containing an uninscribed sarcophagus so closely resembles that of Tuthmosis I that it is confidently ascribed to the son, and from its neglect one might conjecture that no on cared00 very much what was his fate; his funerary temple, discovered by the French in 1926, is a paltry affair. A stela probably from Heliopolis depicts him accompanied by Queen 'Ahmose, the widow of Tuthmosis I, and by her daughter the 'king's great wife' Hashepsowe, so that the latter had certainly been married to Tuthmosis II, and since her father was Tuthmosis I her claim to the throne was a very strong one. Nevertheless, there was another formidable claimant in the person of a son of Toothsome II by a concubine See (Isis) who had to content herself with the title 'King's Mother'. That there existed a powerful party which successfully asserted the rights of the youthful Toothsome III is proved not only by Inn's biography, but also by a later inscription at Quark telling in very flowery language the story of his elevation to the throne. It relates that he was a mere stripling serving in the temple of Amun of Karnak and not yet promoted to the rank of 'prophet' ('god's servant'). One day, when the reigning king was sacrificing to Amun, the god made the circuit of the colonnade seeking the young prince everywhere. As soon as he was found , Amun halted before him and having raised him from his recumbent posture placed him in front of the king and made him stand in the place usually occupied by the sovereign. The pronouns used in this passage present some difficulty, but it seems clear that the intention was to present Tuthmosis III as appointed king by divine oracle during the lifetime of his father. Since the inscription was probably written forty-two years later, its absolute truthfulness may be legitimately questioned. What , however, is certain is that he came to the throne under the tutelage of his father's wife Hashepsowe, who kept him well in the background for a number of years.

St. Anthony's Monastery -Deir Mar Antonios

St. Anthony the Great, when orphaned at the age of 18, became a hermit and thus lived to 105 years old. He lived as an Anchorite, as still exists in Egypt, and it is said that he was tormented his entire life by flatteries and temptations of the devil. He, along with St. Pachomius, were two of the first exponents of Christian monasticism, which originated in the Egyptian desert. He is buried beneath one of the ancient churches (St. Anthony) of the monastery.

St. Anthony's Monastery (Deir Mar Antonios), and its neighbor St. Paul's, are the oldest monasteries in Egypt. Hidden deep in the Red Sea Mountains and relying on springs for their water supply, both still observe rituals that have hardly changed in 16 centuries. They are accessible by special tours from Cairo, Suez or Hurghada and a stay in either monastery can be arranged in advance.

St. Anthony's was founded in 356 AD, just after the saints death. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, the monastery flourished but was plundered in 1454 by Bedouin servants. Today it is a self-contained village with gardens, a mill, a bakery and five churches with exceptional wall paintings of holy knights in bright colors and the hermit founders of the monastery in subdued colors and icons. There is also a library with over 1,700 handwritten manuscripts, but the Bedouin servants who plundered the monastery used many manuscripts for cooking fuel. At one time, there must have been a much more extensive library. St. Anthony's Cave (magharah), where he lived as a hermit, is a 2 km hike from the monastery and 680 m. above the Red Sea. It offers stunning views of the mountains and the sea, and the chance to see a wide range of bird life